|
ГЛАВНАЯ
> Вернуться к содержанию
SENTENTIA. European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
Правильная ссылка на статью:
Suedfeld P., Rank D., Halliwell J., Buckley N.D.
Psychosocial aspects of spaceflight and aging
// SENTENTIA. European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences.
2017. № 2.
С. 56-72.
DOI: 10.25136/1339-3057.2017.2.23203 URL: https://nbpublish.com/library_read_article.php?id=23203
Psychosocial aspects of spaceflight and aging /
Психосоциальные аспекты космических полетов и старения
Сюдфелд Петер
Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia
BC V6T 1Z4, Канада, British Columbia область, г. Vancouver, ул. West Mall, 2136
Suedfeld Peter
Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, The University of British Columbia
BC V6T 1Z4, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada
|
psuedfeld@psych.ubc.ca
|
|
|
Другие публикации этого автора |
|
Ранк Дэннис
старший партнер, Dennis Rank and Associates
BC V6T 1Z4, Канада, British Columbia область, г. Vancouver, ул. West Mall, 2329
Rank Dennis
Senior Partner at Dennis Rank and Associates
2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4
|
d_rank@yahoo.com
|
|
|
Другие публикации этого автора |
|
Халливэлл Джанет
D. Sc. (Hon.), President, J.E.Halliwell Associates Inc.
BC V6T 1Z4, Канада, British Columbia область, г. Salt Spring Island, ул. Sunset Drive, 1
Halliwell Janet E.
D. Sc. (Hon.), President, J.E.Halliwell Associates Inc.
BC V6T 1Z4, 1 Sunset Drive, Salt Spring Island, BC Canada
|
psuedfeld@psych.ubc.ca
|
|
|
Другие публикации этого автора |
|
|
Бакли Николь
Ph.D., Chief Scientist, Life Science and ISS Utilization, The Canadian Space Agency
J3Y 8Y9, Канада, Quebec область, г. Saint-Hubert, ул. Route De L'aéroport, 6767
Buckley Nicole D.
Ph.D., Chief Scientist, Life Science and ISS Utilization, The Canadian Space Agency
6767 Route De L'aéroport, Saint-Hubert, Quebec J3Y 8Y9, Canada
|
psuedfeld@psych.ubc.ca
|
|
|
Другие публикации этого автора |
|
|
DOI: 10.25136/1339-3057.2017.2.23203
Дата направления статьи в редакцию:
04-06-2017
Дата публикации:
27-06-2017
Аннотация:
Статья посвящена рассмотрению возможности применения исследований старения, в частности, в области гериатрической психологии для решения задач, стоящих перед космической психологией. Речь идет о допустимости распространения результатов анализа психосоциальных аспектов поведения людей в домах престарелых на области, связанные с изучением поведения астронавтов, находящихся в замкнутом пространстве космического корабля во время длительного полета. Особое внимание в работе было уделено выявлению сходства стрессогенных факторов и психологических реакций обеих исследуемых групп. Для решения поставленных задач использовались методы наблюдения, анкетирования, сравнительного анализа, систематизации, принципы детерминизма и аксиологической рациональности, междисциплинарные подходы. В работе показано, что, несмотря на формальные различия исследуемых групп, сами по себе психосоциальные аспекты существования в замкнутых пространствах пожилых людей и астронавтов (особенности окружающей среды наборы факторов стресса, виды психологических реакций, используемые методы снижения стрессогенного влияния среды и повышения стрессоустойчивости личности и т.п.) в значительной мере схожи. Продемонстрировано, что результаты, полученные в области гериатрической психологии и социологии, могут иметь прогностическое значение для космической психологии, поскольку они позволяют идентифицировать еще не учтенные психологические риски, которые с большой вероятностью будут возникать с увеличением длительности космических полетов, и предложить практические решения для их профилактики.
Ключевые слова:
Космическая психология, Старение, Психологическая реакция, Долговременный космический полет, Гериатрическая психология, Изолированное пространство, Раздражители, MКС, Нарушение сна, Депрессия
Abstract: This article is dedicated to the examination of application of the research on aging, particularly, in the area of geriatric psychology for resolution of the tasks that space psychology is faced with. This refers to legitimate distribution of the results of analysis of psychosocial aspects of people in retirement homes in the areas, associated with examination of astronauts’ behavior that are placed in the confinement of spacecraft during a long-duration flight. Special attention is given to determination of similarity between the stressogenic factors and psychological responses of both groups. The work demonstrates that despite the formal differences between the groups, the psychosocial aspects of existence in confined environment of the older people and astronauts (specificities of the surrounding environment, stress factors, types of psychological responses, methods of reducing the stressogenic influence of the environment, building up resistance to stress, etc.), are considerably similar. The results acquired in the area of geriatric psychology and sociology can play an important role in forecasting space behavior, due to the fact that it allows identifying the yet uncounted psychological risks, which mostly likely will emerge with the increasing endurance of spaceflights, as well as suggest practical preventative measures.
Keywords: Space psychology, Aging, Psychological reaction, Long-duration spaceflight, Geriatric psychology, Isolated Environment, Stressors, ISS, Sleep deprivation, Depression
Many places on Earth have been
used as analogues of space vehicles, with the goal of understanding the
pressures and stresses of a long-duration spaceflight such as a round-trip
voyage to Mars. Some are basically laboratory simulations that
confine experimental subjects to capsules that resemble the kind of space
vehicles that may eventually make such a voyage through space [5]. Others have been
purpose-built in natural environments selected for their remoteness, isolation,
and terrain features, with living and working quarters designed to simulate
some of the living conditions of space vehicles and of exploration on the
surface of an extraterrestrial body [7]. Yet others differ from the
foregoing by existing for other purposes but share some of the features of
spacecraft and/or alien surfaces. These are inhabited by crews or teams engaged
in ongoing scientific pursuits (for example, oceanographic or meteorological
monitoring) and their support personnel. The most frequently studied of
these analogue environments have been stations in
Antarctica [19].
All of these are prototypes of
ICEs: Isolated, Confined Environments. In addition, some are
located in places where conditions are highly unusual and often very
hazardous: Extreme and Unusual Environments (EUEs).
Many environments share the characteristics of both categories. Most ICEs
studied by psychologists are characterized by remoteness from highly populated
communities, living with a small and relatively unvarying group isolated from
the inhabitants’ accustomed social milieu, and confined
living and working quarters with reduced comfort, privacy, usable space, and
amenities. In addition, many – which are also EUEs - impose reductions of
mobility, usually because the outside environment is dangerous if not lethal.
Salient examples are polar, especially Antarctic, stations; undersea habitats
and nuclear submarines; long-journeying cargo vessels and tankers; resource
extraction facilities such as logging, mining, and fishing camps or offshore
oil rigs [19]. The crucial point is that
they seem to approximate the psychosocial characteristics of living in a space
vehicle [28]; [43].
But there are other, less
dramatic and less drastic analogues as well. One of these is the situation
common to many of the aged, especially those who live in group housing: planned
communities, assisted living centers, or nursing homes [9]. Although details differ with
regard to variables such as the client’s health and mobility, the degree of
assistance needed and the degrees of autonomy and self-help that are feasible,
the fact remains that many such environments are, to a greater or lesser degree,
isolated and confined. Many healthy and mobile people in late middle or early
old age voluntarily choose to live in retirement communities designed to
provide recreational opportunities, a congenial group of peers, and emergency
medical care. At that stage, they do not confront the problems faced by
residents who are dependent on more extensive care and assistance. Even when
more physical constraints develop, some of the aged prefer to continue in their
own home (perhaps with non-resident assistants) rather than to live with
strangers or with their younger relatives, situations that raise their own sets
of challenges.
The conditions of life in
group homes offer a closer parallel to life in other ICEs. The residents are
removed from their families and accustomed social circles, as well as from
their former homes with their well-known layout, furniture, décor,
memorabilia of their life, neighborhood, and so on. Their living space is
limited, and in most cases so are their privacy, autonomy, and control over
their social and physical environment. Their ability to partake in activities
that they had previously enjoyed may be limited by the opportunities offered in
the institution as well as by their own infirmity.
To varying degrees, all of
these features are shared with the situation of long-duration astronauts. Can
we learn how confined individuals can adapt to, enjoy, and benefit from these
apparently negative factors? Can we learn how a confined group can develop a
common culture that enhances their bonding and morale, and what the members can
do to make their unique environment feel more like home? Can we then translate
this learning to institutional residences for the elderly as well as space
habitats to enhance the lives of their clients?
Not only are space capsules
and nursing homes ICEs; perhaps not quite so obviously, so are many other
environments in which elderly people live: more or less alone in small houses
or apartments, which like group homes offer restricted space, monotonous
surroundings, and a limited social circle. Although their physical environment
has not changed, their social life usually has. Old friends may have died or
moved away; the younger generations of their family have other demands on their
time and may also have dispersed to other places.
Those living alone also face
some problems that are similar to those in group living. Their declining
health, strength, and energy may leave them increasingly confined. The
limitations may be features not only of the physical environment, but result
also from the diminished physical and mental fitness that can prevent old
people from fully utilizing their environment and what it offers. For example,
restricted mobility may prevent the use of some portions of the individual’s
home. Thus, although their life is less structured and may appear unchanged
compared living in a group residence or in a space capsule, similarities
persist.
Although at a quick glance no
two groups seem more dissimilar than astronauts and the elderly (except for
John Glenn, of course), there are subtle but profound philosophical and
psychological parallels between the two groups. All space travelers, and many
old people, live in what the Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman [18] called “total institutions”: places where a number
of “similarly situated people, cut off from the wider community for a
considerable time, together lead an enclosed, formally administered round of
life.” We may add that external control over that “round” – i.e., loss of
control over one’s own circumstances and actions – exacerbates the
psychological stresses of the situation.
Space capsules obviously fit
that definition, and so do nursing homes. Of course, there are important
differences. Astronauts are eager volunteers, stringently selected from a much larger
number of applicants, highly trained and mission-oriented; they are engaged in
a widely admired enterprise, collecting experiences open to only a tiny
percentage of humanity. They have high expectations that at the end of their
journey, they will return to their family, friends, colleagues, and activities
with unique memories and a status that will affect their life from then
on [37]. The journey of the aged can
include positive experiences and memories [6], but their anticipation of
the end of the journey is very different. Two other major differences: people
are not trained in the best ways to be old, whereas astronauts undergo
stringent and prolonged training; and the aging experience is shared by
billions of people but at this point only by a few hundred elite space
travelers.
In some ways, spaceflight can
actually be thought of as accelerating the aging process. Astronauts have to
guard against loss of muscle tone and bone density, as do elderly people at
risk for, e.g., osteoporosis. Back pain, a common symptom among the
elderly [23], has been reported by 52% of
astronauts while adapting to microgravity and then re-adapting to gravity upon
return to Earth [24]. Radiation in space may play
a role in the development of cancer and heart disease [14]. Astronauts can experience difficulties in adjusting
and orienting themselves in microgravity, just as problems of orientation and
balance plague some elderly people. Cardiovascular issues in astronauts include
changes in the shape of the heart, a reduction in its muscle mass, and
stiffening of the arteries [10]. These, as well as visual
problems such as cataracts [12], reported among some
long-duration crewmembers, also resemble those of the old [29].
Little of this is new: NASA
and the National Institute on Aging convened a meeting on the similarities
between the effects of aging and spaceflight on “biosystems”
as long ago as 1989. Agreements for joint research (no pun intended) followed,
with the second spaceflight of John Glenn, at age 77 offering a unique
collaborative opportunity. The research emphasis, however, has been on factors
such as microgravity and radiation, which have direct effects on biological
processes and conditions and at best indirect impact on psychosocial
functioning if the physiological change evokes psychological effects as well.
This paper looks at the
lessons that space psychology and geriatric psychology can teach each other.
Traditionally, both the literature on aging and that on spaceflight have
focused on the problems that their population of interest experiences, and on
what can be done to alleviate the negative effects of those problems – or, more
familiarly, on countermeasures. The problems are due to, or mediated by,
stress, which is a common factor in both literatures. Table 1 shows some of the
stressors encountered by both groups.
Table 1
Shared
stressors of spaceflight and old age.
Physical
|
Social/Psychological
|
Restricted mobility
|
Social monotony
|
Confinement
|
Separation from familiar surroundings
|
Reduced
level of sensory input
|
Loss of autonomy
|
Sensory monotony
|
Lack of privacy
|
Need for exercise
|
Reduced ‘ownership’
|
Sleep disturbances
|
Interpersonal conflict
|
Existential danger
|
Cultural heterogeneity
|
As one might expect, such stressors can have adverse psychological
consequences (see Table 2).
Table 2
Shared
negative psychological reactions.
Anxiety
|
Depression
|
Impulsive behavior
|
Cognitive decline
|
Boredom
|
Reduced energy & mobility
|
Irritability
|
Social withdrawal
|
For both astronauts and the
elderly, there is a complex interplay between stressors and environmental
features on the one hand and social support structures on the other: for
astronauts, their families, colleagues, and the space agency and its staff; for
the aged, family, friends, caregivers, and volunteer support organizations.
In both groups, the negative
impact of stressors can be offset by personal resilience, appropriate
environmental design, and good social support. It should also be remembered
that the effects of stress are not all negative. Personal and societal crises
can lead to the development of more adaptive behaviors, attitudes, and coping
skills, including increased wisdom (both practical and transcendent) and self-reflection.
Implications of space psychology for
research on aging
Space agencies have recognized
the psychosocial problems associated with spaceflight and the unwanted effects
of those problems (see Table 3). These issues were initially
laughed off by believers in “the Right Stuff,” who dismissed concerns that
astronauts might develop psychological and social problems [38]. Decades of accumulating
evidence have shown that they can, and do, especially as crews grow in size and
diversity and multi-month missions become the norm. The problems are likely to
get worse as “multi-month” missions give way to “multi-year.” NASA has
responded by intensifying attention to three aspects of “Behavioral Health and
Performance” risks: behavioral medicine (mood, cognitive functioning, and other
individual behavioral reactions); team (team performance, crew cohesion and
communication); and sleep (countermeasures to the problem of sleep disturbances
and insomnia). To quote the relevant NASA website, “The end result is to
provide technologies and tools that will optimize the adaptation of the
individual and crew to the space environment, and maintain motivation,
cohesion, communication, morale, wellbeing, and productivity” (NASA Human
Research Program, 2013). It is worth noting that the goals of optimization
reach significantly beyond mere countermeasures designed to make life in space
safer.
Table 3
Implications
of spaceflight for aging: Important issues.
Loss of
agency and autonomy
|
Sleep
deprivation, insomnia, disrupted sleep
|
Boredom
and monotony vs. meaningful activity and stimulation
|
Proxemics, privacy, and ownership
|
Social relationships
|
Individual differences
|
Geriatric psychologists have
also begun to focus on the sources and effects of environmental and
psychosocial stressors, and have noted their exacerbation as an increasing number
of aged citizens need assisted care, nursing homes, or other special support
systems. Although the elderly have many unique risk factors involving physical
and mental health and earlier lifestyle, among those shared with long-duration
astronauts are: lack of autonomy and meaningful activity, boredom, cognitive
impairment, depression, limitation of limb mobility, insufficient exercise, and
impaired vision [8]; [25] ; [36].
Countermeasures and
optimization initiatives instituted or being developed by space agencies are
pointing the way to strategies that can be applied to communal living for the
elderly to ameliorate the negative aspects of their situation. Table 4 summarizes the areas
where space psychology has particular resonance with geriatric psychology:
agency and autonomy; sleep deprivation and insomnia; boredom and monotony;
proxemics, privacy, and ownership; social relationships; and insufficient
attention to individual differences. These are aspects of both of these total
institutions that add to the level of stress experienced by the inhabitants,
and that can be addressed by applying the results of past and future research
to the design and procedures of the environment. The following sections discuss
each of these problems and suggest ways of solving them.
Table 4
Psychosocial
“countermeasures” in both ICEs.
Increased
autonomy over schedules, clothing, personal space, etc.
|
Intervention
to improve sleep hygiene
|
Design for
higher social and sensory stimulation
|
Available
communication with family and friends elsewhere
|
Changeable illumination, temperature,
furnishings, clothing, meals, etc.
|
Provisions
for enjoyable physical activity
|
Stress-reducing micro-environments: plants,
animals
|
Time out when desired
|
Development
of on-site ingroup culture
|
Meaningful
and interesting tasks and free-time activities
|
Agency and autonomy. Successful aging is
linked to the ability of individuals to exercise agency over their daily
activities, especially during stressful times and within the boundaries of
social settings and institutions. Loss of independence is reported as one of
the greatest stressors [11]. This can be mitigated by
encouraging the inhabitants to retain their mastery of existing life skills by
providing scope to exercise those wherever possible, and with the development
of new ones, either to improve coping or for enjoyment and satisfaction.
In spaceflight, mastery of
technical, intellectual, and emotional factors is, of course, critical to
success. The ability of astronauts to exert appropriate control over specific
mission activities and goals and over their individual responsibilities with
respect to those, is equally so. Autonomy improves personal satisfaction and
willingness to accept the strictures of the demanding schedules of the mission.
Autonomy is now being seriously studied, in view of the communication lag and
other constraints of ground control for deep space exploration such as a
possible mission to Mars [22].
Sleep deprivation and
insomnia. Sleep deprivation and impaired sleep quality are common in both the
astronaut and aging populations. Sleep problems among astronauts are likely to
be caused by changes to circadian rhythms, lack of natural light cues,
microgravity, high workloads, lack of privacy, interruptions, and a noisy
environment. In space, lack of sufficient duration or quality of sleep may lead
to performance errors, interpersonal problems, and emotional distress.
A number of improvements to
spacecraft living quarters, such as arrangements for increased privacy and
better soundproofing, have been developed to alleviate these problems. Sleep
medication is also used, although differences in medication effects between
space and Earth is another area needing research. There is also the suggestion
that improved upper respiratory airflow may assist sleep.
For the aged, sleep disorders
may be due to physiological and neurological changes, while others derive from
psychological stressors such as anxiety or interpersonal conflict. Sleep
disturbances in the aged, as in astronauts, may affect learning, cognition,
health, and well-being. There are suggestions that some age-related medical
issues may arise from poor sleep [35]; [17] ; [46]. For sleep disorders that arise from environmental
conditions, lessons learned from spacecraft design and respiratory function
studies may help.
Boredom and monotony, vs.
meaningful activity and keeping busy. Both the astronaut and the
aged communities can suffer boredom, often brought about by monotony in the
physical, social, and sensory environments, lack of stimulation, and lack of
meaningful activity. For astronauts, boredom and monotony become increasingly
pertinent as missions become longer. Among measures to alleviate these
stressors are the development of more complex and modifiable environments, more
varied sensory experiences, virtual reality environments, and the creation of
semi-natural garden spaces in space stations and exploration spacecraft. The
astronauts themselves often devise ways to overcome these problems, for example
through games, contests, ceremonies, as well as preparing novel and unusual
cuisine. “Keeping busy” is important to maintaining morale.
Many of these lessons are
already being applied to assist the aging community, and research shows that
providing stimulating and meaningful activities to seniors has a positive
impact on their functioning and well-being [2]. Within these factors, social
activities and intimacy appear to be of most importance [15]; [26]; [27]; [31] ; [45].
Proxemics, privacy, and
ownership. Both the spaceflight and the aging literatures show the significant
impact of the nature and use of individual and group living space. The
proxemics concepts of body territory, home territory, public territory, and
interaction distance, are readily applicable to both situations, and
inappropriate or unwanted violations of interpersonal distance norms cause
problems for members of both the space and the group home communities. Other
problems relate to inability to efficiently use the space, which may be
designed or arranged without reference to the individual’s preferences; others
to loss of privacy (intrusive visual, auditory, or tactile stimulation from
others, or the inability to keep one’s own behavior from being seen or heard by
others. Another shared issue is lack of “ownership” – of places that a person
can call his or her own, which can be accessed by others only with the owner’s
consent and where owners can retreat when they feel the need for a period of
solitude. Acceptable levels of crowding under different circumstances remain
unknown.
Both communities attempt to
resolve these issues with a range of strategies, for example through methods to
improve privacy and ownership of personal and work stations in spacecraft, and
through improved design of assisted living facilities or adapted home design
for the old [33] ; [34]. For example, clear and respected boundaries around
private space are important, as is the ability to bring and arrange private
possessions that remind one of home. Privacy in all sensory modalities needs to
be guaranteed as much as possible, taking into account cultural, gender, and
individual differences as to preferred levels of privacy. These appear to be
interesting areas for collaborative research, especially if integrated with
studies of the related topics of density, crowding, and the methods that
individuals use to control social interactions.
Although some of these issues
are obvious, there are two subtle findings in space with equally important
implications for aging. These are related, first to the tremendous role of
interpersonal interactions in mediating mission success, and second, to the
importance of investigating impact at the level of individuals, not only
groups.
Interpersonal relations. Research has shown that
astronauts mention social support as the most frequently used coping strategy
in space [39]. Recently, when cosmonaut Mikhail
Kornienko was asked what he liked best about his
342-day mission on ISS, he replied “Scott Kelly”, his American fellow
crewmember [21]. Similarly positive comments
were made by American astronaut Shannon Lucid about her Russian teammates on a
Shuttle-Mir mission. Commanders emphasize the maintenance
of group harmony and morale as their key coping strategy, even more than
mission accomplishments. These highly-skilled individuals, trained to cope with
critical mission threats, have by implication identified the personal and
interpersonal reactions of their colleagues as being, not just important, but
potentially the most important factors in
success.
There are two implications for
aging. Space crews and aging population share issues related to the physical
environment, privacy, sleep disorders, and the like, but social health may be
the most critical to successful aging, as it is in space. The emphasis on psychosocial
health supports the integrative perspective now popular in aging research [16]. It perhaps suggests one way
of developing research priorities in the aging field, as it does in space
psychology. Of course, the immediate challenges to astronauts are quite
different from those that threaten the aged, and so the factors mediating
success may be different too. Both communities, however, are faced with the
ultimate threat of incapacitation and death, and in many instances may not
survive without a strong and healthy social network. Thus the high-intensity
crucible of spaceflight may allow us to see more clearly the social network’s
enormous importance, even against the backdrop of myriad critical technical
factors.
Individual differences. Another subtle
connection is the importance of individual differences in outcomes, which have
often been ignored by both space and seniors’ living administrations. Astronaut
selection, training, and experience are focused on small numbers of individuals
who have highly individual skills, problems, cultures, coping mechanisms, and
interpersonal/social styles. The strategies of space agencies and astronauts
must address idiosyncratic individuality, using flexible approaches tailored to
each person and to the unique way each interacts with the others (and, no
doubt, with individuals in mission control on the ground). Research on the
reactions of “foreign” astronauts flying as a minority of one among an
otherwise monocultural crew documents the discomfort
that they experience from being treated in terms of nationality as opposed to
their individual skills and personality [42].
Numerous clinical studies have
found that the individual therapeutic relationship between client and
practitioner is far more important to success than the specific counseling
technique used, although the technique chosen must take into account the
client’s social and environmental context. What we learn from the experiences
of “foreign” astronauts may be applicable to the minority living in a
multi-cultural residence. In the aging context, this supports the importance of
tailoring problem-solving to individual requirements rather than to those of
the cohort as a whole, but the research is rarely explicit in this regard. Of
course, individualized support plans would have notable implications in terms
of the expertise, time, effort, and resources that would need to be expended.
Implications of aging research for
space psychology
The literature on aging
demonstrates several theoretical underpinnings that are not immediately evident
in space psychology (Table 5). Chief among these is the
need to view aging through a complex lens that is multivariate and interactive,
and takes into account the interplay of biological, psychological, social, and
cultural factors [16]; the importance of the life
course for successful aging [32]; and a focus on positive
aspects of the aging experience.
Table 5
Implications
of aging research for space psychology: Important issues.
Integrated
study of relevant variables
|
Enhancement
of social relationships both in and outside the ICE
|
Life review
|
Resilience and salutogenesis
|
Researchers have recognized
the need to develop a more multidimensional and integrated way to address the
capabilities and responses of the aged. This requirement surely resonates in
understanding how astronauts respond to stressful missions. Earlier, shorter
missions were driven mainly by the exigencies of physics and engineering.
Longer ones, by contrast, will increasingly depend for their success on the far
less predictable behaviors of the crews, both as a unit but also those of the
individual. The literature on aging strongly suggests that the ability to
foster successful journeys depends on a richer and more multidimensional
understanding of the underlying human variables, not just a piece-by-piece refinement
of moderating factors [1]. The literature also suggests
some of the variables that may be important in such an endeavor, such as active
engagement and personal agency [2]. Many of these variables are
relevant across the disciplinary divide. While these factors remain under
active investigation within the aging sphere, there are opportunities for
collaborative projects between the two research communities.
A related issue is the
usefulness of the life review. The review can help people understand their
experiences as an interconnected, dynamic, and meaningful whole, and viewing
old age as one stage in a complex and multidimensional life can help the
individual and the family to avoid an exclusive focus on current problems and
fear of the future (Population Change and Lifecourse
Cluster http://sociology.uwo.ca/cluster/en/index.html).
The relevance of investigating
the life course appears at first glance to be less important for astronauts
than for seniors. The rigorous selection and training of astronauts likely mean
a somewhat more predictable course of their life histories: the individuals are
self-selected, and further selected by space agencies, to have certain shared
traits of ability and resilience. However, viewing the active space career as
one component in a multidimensional life Gestalt implies
the importance of helping astronauts and their families to prepare for merging
that experience into the totality of past, current, and planned future
individual and family life and preparing for the post-astronaut life.
Space and aging psychology
research share a growing emphasis on positive effects [16]. The positive impacts of
aging and spaceflight are in many cases similar to each other – for example, a
sense of accomplishment, concern for future generations, and an appreciation of
life’s beauty and of the fragility of life and the Earth itself [20] ; [41].
There are many common factors
related to successful aging and successful spaceflight. Increased cross-flow of
ideas between the two research communities would be fruitful. For example, the
growth of positive psychology has made inroads in many areas, from childrearing
to military training, and neither space psychology nor geriatric psychology has
been unaffected. Two concepts have taken on increasing importance in both
fields: resilience and salutogenesis.
Resilience refers to the ability to
rebound after stress to previous levels of functioning. Research on resilience
includes the investigation of cognitive processes, emotional stability, and
appropriate coping strategies [30]. Resilient individuals show
high levels of self-esteem, optimism, altruism, and humor; they retain or can
restore effective intellectual functioning, appropriate social behavior, and
emotional stability.
The factors influencing
resilience in space studies have clear similarities to those identified in the
aging literature. These factors are important in daily life, but are especially
so in the presence or aftermath of stress and trauma. Resilience is fostered
through resources such as education, health, and economic security, facilitated
by various sources like families and communities, but is also dependent on the
individual’s personality. An extension of the idea is that resilience is tied
to the development of wisdom, self-actualization, altruism, and spirituality –
to salutogenesis, our last topic.
Salutogenesis refers to positive
mental and emotional health enhancement beyond simple recovery from stress and
trauma [3] ; [4]. Spaceflight examples include post-experience growth,
value changes in a socially positive direction, increased self-confidence, an
increase in spiritual values, close and warm relationships with others, and
concern for the collective good of humanity and the Earth itself. These have
analogues to current approaches that emphasize positive aging experiences for
individuals, including effects such as generativity [8] that provide a legacy to
society more generally, especially if older individuals are given more scope to
pursue it. Table 6 shows some of the salutogenic effects found in studies of spaceflight and
aging.
Table 6
Salutogenic outcomes.
Spaceflight
|
Aging
|
Self-confidence
|
Self-concept coherence
|
New skills and knowledge
|
Wisdom, judgment
|
Decision-making
|
Selective control
|
Giving and
getting social support
|
Social networks
|
Universalism:
Earth and people as one
|
Care for future generations
|
Spirituality
|
Spirituality
|
New opportunities
|
Life
review: Valuing one’s past
|
Appreciation of others
|
Benevolence
|
One interesting aspect of this
table is that each positive aspect in either column has a close analogue in the
other. Thus we see that the relevance of space psychology to geriatric
psychology is not only in the shared difficulties and possible countermeasures
relevant to both populations, but also in the shared enhancement of the
personal growth of their subjects. Better communication and more contact
between specialists in the two areas may lead to reduced stress and a growth of
positive effects for astronauts and the aged, and by extension perhaps to inhabitants
of other total institutions and isolated, confined environments.
Author notes
Portions of this paper were
first presented at a conference entitled “Aging in Space,” sponsored by the
Canadian Space Agency and held in June, 2014 in Waterloo, ON, Canada. The paper
is based on a comprehensive literature review produced by the authors with the
financial support of the Canadian Space Agency [40].
We are grateful for the
research assistance of Ben Archdekin, Johanna
Mickelson, and Dorothy Ordogh, and the guidance and
insights of Brian de Vries, Holly Tuokko,
Louise Plouffe, Verena Menec,
Anne Martin Matthews, Gloria Gutman, Phyllis Johnson,
Andrew Sixsmith, and Norah Keating.
For further information:<psuedfeld@psych.ubc.ca>
Библиография
1. Abeles RP, White Riley M, 1977, A life-course perspective on the later years of life: Some implications for research. Social Science Research Council Annual Report 1976–1977. Quoted in Marshall and Bengtson. Theoretical perspectives on the sociology of aging. In Settersten RA, Jr, Angel JL, (Eds.) (2011). Handbook of sociology of aging.
2. K.B. Adams, S. Leibbrandt, H. Moon A critical review of the literature on social and leisure activity and wellbeing in later life Ageing Soc, 31 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001091.
3. A.A. Antonovsky Health, stress, and coping Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1979).
4. A.A. Antonovsky Unraveling the mystery of health: how people manage stress and stay well Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1987).
5. M. Basner, D.F. Dinges, D.J. Millicone, I. Savelev, A.J. Ecker, A. Di Antonio, et al. Psychological and behavioral changes during confinement in a 520-day simulated interplanetary mission to Mars PLOS ONE (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093298
6. P.B. Baltes, M.M. Baltes Psychological perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with compensation P.B. Baltes, M.M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: perspectives from the behavioral sciences, Cambridge University Press, New York (1990).
7. K. Binsted, R.I. Kobrick, M.Ó. Griofa, S. Bishop, J. Lapierre Human factors research as part of a Mars exploration analogue mission on Devon Island Planet Space Sci, 58 (2010), pp. 994–1006ю http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2010.03.001
8. T. Booth, D. Phillips Group living in homes for the elderly: A comparative study of the outcomes of care Brit J Soc Work, 17 (1987), pp. 1–20. http://www.jstor.ort/stable/23707211
9. Buckley N. Space health and aging (SHARE) [Video file]. March 31, 2016, [Retrieved 05.08.2016] from http://tedxwinnipeg.ca/speaker/nicole.
10. B. Casteel. Study finds astronauts’ hearts become more spherical in space American College of Cardiology press (2014) release, [accessed 10.08.2016] from
11. N.G. Choi, S. Ransom, R.J. Wyllie Depression in older nursing home residents: the influence of nursing home environmental stressors, coping, and acceptance of group and individual therapy Aging Mental Health, 12 (5) (2008), pp. 536–547.
12. F.A. Cucinotta, F.K. Manuel, J. Jones, G. Iszard, J. Murrey, B. Djojonegro, et al. Space radiation and cataracts in astronauts Radiat Res, 156 (5) (2001), pp. 460–466.
13. De St Aubin ED, McAdams DP, Kim T-C, editors. The generative society: caring for future generations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2003.
14. M.D. Delp, J.M. Charvat, C.L. Limoli, R.K. Globus, P. Gosh. Lunar astronauts show higher cardiovascular deep space radiation effects on the vascular endothelium Sci Rep, 6 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep29901 Article No. 29901
15. K.M. Everard The relationship between reasons for activity and older adult wellbeing J Appl Gerontol, 18 (3) (1999), pp. 325–340.
16. E.M. Friedman, C.D. Ryff Theoretical perspectives. S.K. Whitbourne, M.J. Sliwinski (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of adulthood and aging (Ch. 1), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford (2012) http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118392966.ch1
17. L. Gallicchio, B. Kalesan. Sleep duration and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sleep Res, 18 (2009), pp. 148–158.
18. E. Goffman. Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Anchor Press, New York (1961).
19. A.A. Harrison, Y.A. Clearwater, C.P. McKay (Eds.), From Antarctica to outer space: Life in isolation and confinement, Springer-Verlag, New York (1991).
20. E.C. Ihle, J.B. Ritsher, N. Kanas. Positive psychological outcomes of spaceflight: An empirical study. Aviat Space Environ Med, 77 (2006), pp. 93–101.
21. International Astronautical Congress (2016). Plenary: Living for a year on ISS: Early results and lessons learned.
22. Kanas N, Saylor S, Harris M, Neylan T, Boyd J, Weiss DS, et al. High versus low crewmember autonomy in space simulation environments. In: On orbit and beyond: Psychological perspectives on human spaceflight. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag; 2013. p. 231–45.
23. L.D. Jones, H. Pandit, C. Lavy. Back pain in the elderly: a review. Maturitas, 78 (4) (2014), pp. 258–262/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.05.004
24. E.L. Kerstman, R.A. Scheuring, M.G. Barnes, T.B. DeKorse, L.G. Saile. Space adaptation back pain: a retrospective study. Aviat Space Environ Med, 83 (2012), pp. 2–7.
25. F. Landi, M. Cesari, G. Onder, F. Lattanzio, E. Manes Gravina, R. Bernabel, et al. Physical activity and mortality in frail, community-living elderly patients. J Geront A, 59 (2004), pp. M833–M837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerona/59.8.M833.
26. H. Litwin, S. Shiovitz-Ezra. The association between activity and wellbeing in later life: what really matters? Ageing Soc, 26 (2) (2006), pp. 225–242.
27. H. Maier, P.L. Klumb. Social participation and survival at older ages: is the effect driven by activity content or context? Eur J Ageing, 2 (1) (2005), pp. 31–39.
28. D. Manzey. Human missions to Mars: New psychological challenges and research issues. Acta Astronaut, 55 (2004), pp. 781–790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.05.013
29. A. Paris. Physiological and psychological aspects of sending humans to Mars: Challenges and recommendations. J Washington Acad Scis, 100 (2014), pp. 3–20.
30. B. Resnick, L.P. Gwyther, K.A. Roberto (Eds.), Resilience in aging: concepts, research, and outcomes, Springer, New York (2011) ISBN:9781441902313; 1441902317.
31. L.H. Ritchey, P.N. Ritchey, B.E. Dietz. Clarifying the measurement of activity. Act Adaptation Aging, 26 (1) (2001), pp. 1–21.
32. R.A. Settersten Jr., J.L. Angel (Eds.), Handbook of sociology of aging, Springer, New York (2011). 1441973737; 9781461440956
33. A. Sixsmith. Understanding the older user of ambient technologies. J.A. Jacko (Ed.), Proceedings of the 13th international conference on human-computer interaction. Part III: Ubiquitous and intelligent interaction, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg (2009), pp. 511–519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02580-8_56
34. A. Sixsmith. Gerontological perspectives on ambient assistive living. ,in: J.C. Augusto (Ed.), et al., Handbook of ambient assisted living: Technology for healthcare, rehabilitation and well-being. Ambient intelligence and smart environments11, , IOS PRESS, Amsterdam, NL (2012), pp. 253–257.
35. S. Stenholm, E. Kronholm, P. Sainio, K. Borodulin, P. Era, M. Fogelholm, et al.Sleep-related factors and mobility in older men and women.J Gerontol A: Biol Sci Med Sci, 65A (6) (2010), pp. 649–657.
36. A.E. Stuck, J.M. Walthert, T. Nikolaus, C.J. Büla, C. Hohmann, J.C. Beck. Risk factors for functional status decline in community-living elderly people: A systematic literature review. Soc Sci Med, 48 (1999), pp. 445–469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00370-0
37. P. Suedfeld. Applying positive psychology in the study of extreme environments. Hum Performance Extreme Environ, 6 (2002), pp. 21–25.
38. P. Suedfeld. Invulnerability, coping, salutogenesis, integration: four phases of space psychology. Aviat Space Environ Med, 76 (6) (2005), pp. B61–B73.
39. P. Suedfeld, J. Brcic, K. Legkaia. Coping with the problems of space flight: reports from astronauts and cosmonauts. Acta Astronaut, 65 (3) (2009), pp. 312–324.
40. Suedfeld P, Halliwell JE, Rank AD, 2013. Space and ageing, behavioural theme: An integrative literature review. Prepared for the Canadian Space Agency under Contract No. 08/7011078.
41. P. Suedfeld, K. Legkaia, J. Brcic. Changes in the hierarchy of value references associated with flying in space. J Pers, 78 (5) (2010), pp. 1411–1435.
42. P. Suedfeld, K.E. Wilk, L. Cassel. Flying with strangers: postmission reflections of multinational space crews. D.A. Vakoch (Ed.), Psychology of space exploration: Contemporary research in historical perspective, NASA Historical Series, Washington, DC (2011), pp. 143–175.
43. Suedfeld P. Extreme and unusual environments: Challenges and responses. In: Clayton S, editor. The oxford handbook of environmental and conservation psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 348–71.
44. Wada K, Shibata T, Saito T, Tanie K, 2002. Analysis of factors that bring mental effects to elderly people in robot assisted activity. In: International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2002. IEEE/RSJ, 2, 1152–1157. ISBN: 0-7803-7398-7, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IRDS.2002. 1043887.
45. P. Warr, V. Butcher, I. Robertson. Activity and psychological well-being in older people. Aging Mental Health, 8 (2) (2004), pp. 172–183.
46. S.D. Youngstedt, D.F. Kripke. Long sleep and mortality: Rationale for sleep restriction. Sleep Med Rev, 8 (2004), pp. 159–174.
References
1. Abeles RP, White Riley M, 1977, A life-course perspective on the later years of life: Some implications for research. Social Science Research Council Annual Report 1976–1977. Quoted in Marshall and Bengtson. Theoretical perspectives on the sociology of aging. In Settersten RA, Jr, Angel JL, (Eds.) (2011). Handbook of sociology of aging.
2. K.B. Adams, S. Leibbrandt, H. Moon A critical review of the literature on social and leisure activity and wellbeing in later life Ageing Soc, 31 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001091.
3. A.A. Antonovsky Health, stress, and coping Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1979).
4. A.A. Antonovsky Unraveling the mystery of health: how people manage stress and stay well Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1987).
5. M. Basner, D.F. Dinges, D.J. Millicone, I. Savelev, A.J. Ecker, A. Di Antonio, et al. Psychological and behavioral changes during confinement in a 520-day simulated interplanetary mission to Mars PLOS ONE (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093298
6. P.B. Baltes, M.M. Baltes Psychological perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with compensation P.B. Baltes, M.M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: perspectives from the behavioral sciences, Cambridge University Press, New York (1990).
7. K. Binsted, R.I. Kobrick, M.Ó. Griofa, S. Bishop, J. Lapierre Human factors research as part of a Mars exploration analogue mission on Devon Island Planet Space Sci, 58 (2010), pp. 994–1006yu http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2010.03.001
8. T. Booth, D. Phillips Group living in homes for the elderly: A comparative study of the outcomes of care Brit J Soc Work, 17 (1987), pp. 1–20. http://www.jstor.ort/stable/23707211
9. Buckley N. Space health and aging (SHARE) [Video file]. March 31, 2016, [Retrieved 05.08.2016] from http://tedxwinnipeg.ca/speaker/nicole.
10. B. Casteel. Study finds astronauts’ hearts become more spherical in space American College of Cardiology press (2014) release, [accessed 10.08.2016] from
11. N.G. Choi, S. Ransom, R.J. Wyllie Depression in older nursing home residents: the influence of nursing home environmental stressors, coping, and acceptance of group and individual therapy Aging Mental Health, 12 (5) (2008), pp. 536–547.
12. F.A. Cucinotta, F.K. Manuel, J. Jones, G. Iszard, J. Murrey, B. Djojonegro, et al. Space radiation and cataracts in astronauts Radiat Res, 156 (5) (2001), pp. 460–466.
13. De St Aubin ED, McAdams DP, Kim T-C, editors. The generative society: caring for future generations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2003.
14. M.D. Delp, J.M. Charvat, C.L. Limoli, R.K. Globus, P. Gosh. Lunar astronauts show higher cardiovascular deep space radiation effects on the vascular endothelium Sci Rep, 6 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep29901 Article No. 29901
15. K.M. Everard The relationship between reasons for activity and older adult wellbeing J Appl Gerontol, 18 (3) (1999), pp. 325–340.
16. E.M. Friedman, C.D. Ryff Theoretical perspectives. S.K. Whitbourne, M.J. Sliwinski (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of adulthood and aging (Ch. 1), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford (2012) http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118392966.ch1
17. L. Gallicchio, B. Kalesan. Sleep duration and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sleep Res, 18 (2009), pp. 148–158.
18. E. Goffman. Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates. Anchor Press, New York (1961).
19. A.A. Harrison, Y.A. Clearwater, C.P. McKay (Eds.), From Antarctica to outer space: Life in isolation and confinement, Springer-Verlag, New York (1991).
20. E.C. Ihle, J.B. Ritsher, N. Kanas. Positive psychological outcomes of spaceflight: An empirical study. Aviat Space Environ Med, 77 (2006), pp. 93–101.
21. International Astronautical Congress (2016). Plenary: Living for a year on ISS: Early results and lessons learned.
22. Kanas N, Saylor S, Harris M, Neylan T, Boyd J, Weiss DS, et al. High versus low crewmember autonomy in space simulation environments. In: On orbit and beyond: Psychological perspectives on human spaceflight. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag; 2013. p. 231–45.
23. L.D. Jones, H. Pandit, C. Lavy. Back pain in the elderly: a review. Maturitas, 78 (4) (2014), pp. 258–262/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.05.004
24. E.L. Kerstman, R.A. Scheuring, M.G. Barnes, T.B. DeKorse, L.G. Saile. Space adaptation back pain: a retrospective study. Aviat Space Environ Med, 83 (2012), pp. 2–7.
25. F. Landi, M. Cesari, G. Onder, F. Lattanzio, E. Manes Gravina, R. Bernabel, et al. Physical activity and mortality in frail, community-living elderly patients. J Geront A, 59 (2004), pp. M833–M837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerona/59.8.M833.
26. H. Litwin, S. Shiovitz-Ezra. The association between activity and wellbeing in later life: what really matters? Ageing Soc, 26 (2) (2006), pp. 225–242.
27. H. Maier, P.L. Klumb. Social participation and survival at older ages: is the effect driven by activity content or context? Eur J Ageing, 2 (1) (2005), pp. 31–39.
28. D. Manzey. Human missions to Mars: New psychological challenges and research issues. Acta Astronaut, 55 (2004), pp. 781–790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.05.013
29. A. Paris. Physiological and psychological aspects of sending humans to Mars: Challenges and recommendations. J Washington Acad Scis, 100 (2014), pp. 3–20.
30. B. Resnick, L.P. Gwyther, K.A. Roberto (Eds.), Resilience in aging: concepts, research, and outcomes, Springer, New York (2011) ISBN:9781441902313; 1441902317.
31. L.H. Ritchey, P.N. Ritchey, B.E. Dietz. Clarifying the measurement of activity. Act Adaptation Aging, 26 (1) (2001), pp. 1–21.
32. R.A. Settersten Jr., J.L. Angel (Eds.), Handbook of sociology of aging, Springer, New York (2011). 1441973737; 9781461440956
33. A. Sixsmith. Understanding the older user of ambient technologies. J.A. Jacko (Ed.), Proceedings of the 13th international conference on human-computer interaction. Part III: Ubiquitous and intelligent interaction, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg (2009), pp. 511–519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02580-8_56
34. A. Sixsmith. Gerontological perspectives on ambient assistive living. ,in: J.C. Augusto (Ed.), et al., Handbook of ambient assisted living: Technology for healthcare, rehabilitation and well-being. Ambient intelligence and smart environments11, , IOS PRESS, Amsterdam, NL (2012), pp. 253–257.
35. S. Stenholm, E. Kronholm, P. Sainio, K. Borodulin, P. Era, M. Fogelholm, et al.Sleep-related factors and mobility in older men and women.J Gerontol A: Biol Sci Med Sci, 65A (6) (2010), pp. 649–657.
36. A.E. Stuck, J.M. Walthert, T. Nikolaus, C.J. Büla, C. Hohmann, J.C. Beck. Risk factors for functional status decline in community-living elderly people: A systematic literature review. Soc Sci Med, 48 (1999), pp. 445–469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00370-0
37. P. Suedfeld. Applying positive psychology in the study of extreme environments. Hum Performance Extreme Environ, 6 (2002), pp. 21–25.
38. P. Suedfeld. Invulnerability, coping, salutogenesis, integration: four phases of space psychology. Aviat Space Environ Med, 76 (6) (2005), pp. B61–B73.
39. P. Suedfeld, J. Brcic, K. Legkaia. Coping with the problems of space flight: reports from astronauts and cosmonauts. Acta Astronaut, 65 (3) (2009), pp. 312–324.
40. Suedfeld P, Halliwell JE, Rank AD, 2013. Space and ageing, behavioural theme: An integrative literature review. Prepared for the Canadian Space Agency under Contract No. 08/7011078.
41. P. Suedfeld, K. Legkaia, J. Brcic. Changes in the hierarchy of value references associated with flying in space. J Pers, 78 (5) (2010), pp. 1411–1435.
42. P. Suedfeld, K.E. Wilk, L. Cassel. Flying with strangers: postmission reflections of multinational space crews. D.A. Vakoch (Ed.), Psychology of space exploration: Contemporary research in historical perspective, NASA Historical Series, Washington, DC (2011), pp. 143–175.
43. Suedfeld P. Extreme and unusual environments: Challenges and responses. In: Clayton S, editor. The oxford handbook of environmental and conservation psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 348–71.
44. Wada K, Shibata T, Saito T, Tanie K, 2002. Analysis of factors that bring mental effects to elderly people in robot assisted activity. In: International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2002. IEEE/RSJ, 2, 1152–1157. ISBN: 0-7803-7398-7, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IRDS.2002. 1043887.
45. P. Warr, V. Butcher, I. Robertson. Activity and psychological well-being in older people. Aging Mental Health, 8 (2) (2004), pp. 172–183.
46. S.D. Youngstedt, D.F. Kripke. Long sleep and mortality: Rationale for sleep restriction. Sleep Med Rev, 8 (2004), pp. 159–174.
Ссылка на эту статью
Просто выделите и скопируйте ссылку на эту статью в буфер обмена. Вы можете также
попробовать найти похожие
статьи
|
|